Employment generation in the Egyptian aquaculture value chain Sustainable Transformation of Egypt’s Aquaculture Market System (STREAMS) project Funded by Photo credit: Sara Fouad/WorldFish Employment generation in the Egyptian aquaculture value chain Authors Ahmed Nasr-Allah, Alexandros Gasparatos, Alice Karanja, Eric Dompreh Brako, Seamus Murphy, Diaa El-Kenawy, Cristiano Rossignoli, Michael Phillips and Harrison Charo Karisa Citation This publication should be cited as: Nasr-Allah A, Gasparatos A, Karanja A, Brako ED, Murphy S, El-Kenawy D, Rossignoli C, Phillips M and Charo-Karisa H. 2019. Employment generation in the Egyptian aquaculture value chain. Penang, Malaysia: WorldFish. Program Report: 2019-04. Photo credits Front cover, 4, 8 and 13, Sara Fouad/WorldFish; page 21, Heba El-Begawi/WorldFish. Acknowledgment This work was undertaken as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Fish Agri-Food Systems (FISH) led by WorldFish. The program is supported by contributors to the CGIAR Trust Fund. Funding support for this work was provided by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation in the framework of the Sustainable Transformation of Egypt`s Aquaculture Market System (STREAMS) project. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of Mohamed Tharwat, Ashraf Shaban, Mostafa El-Gendy, Esraa Mohamed, Amira Ahmed, Mohamed Kurd, Mohamed Salah and Mohamed Abdel-Mohseen for their contribution to data collection. Research supported by 2 Contents Summary 4 Introduction 5 Intervention and aim of study 8 Methodology 11 Results 14 Discussion 20 Conclusions 22 References 23 Annex 26 3 Summary Aquaculture is an important sector with high potential, not only to provide nutritious food but also to contribute to the national economy, and the aquaculture value chain provides substantial employment generation opportunities, including jobs for females and youths. The Sustainable Transformation of Egypt’s Aquaculture Market System (STREAMS) project is being funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) for three years to support the Egyptian aquaculture sector. The project’s mid-term review and steering committee, which requested an assessment about job creation in the aquaculture value chain to review the existing estimates, reported 14 full-time equivalent (FTE) jobs per 100 t of fish produced (Macfadyen et al. 2011). This study assesses employment generation along the main stages of the aquaculture value chain—namely hatcheries, feed mills, fish farms, and fish trade and retail. It also discusses the potential of job generation across the sector to contribute to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study was conducted in April and May 2018 and included surveys in hatcheries (N=40), feed mills (N=14), fish farms (N=234), and fish trading and retailing (N=182) in the five governorates responsible for 80% of the national aquaculture output. We estimate that aquaculture generates 19.56 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish produced along the entire value chain. However, most of these are for males over 30 years old, with few jobs for females and younger people. Most jobs for females are currently generated at the retailing stage. Boosting employment generation across the entire value chain, especially for females and youths, could contribute to the attainment of multiple SDGs related to gender equality (SDG 5) and decent employment (SDG 8). Workers in one of the hatcheries in Riyad village, Kafr El-Sheikh governorate, Lower Egypt. 4 4 Photo credit: Sara Fouad/WorldFish Introduction Aquaculture and employment Global unemployment rates stand at an alarming 6%, with close to 200 million people out of work (World Bank 2017a). Unemployment rates in Africa are even higher, officially at 7.9% but possibly much higher (World Bank 2017a). For example, in some African countries, such as Egypt (12.1%), unemployment rates are even higher (World Bank 2017a). Primary production sectors, such as agriculture, have been the backbone of the economies in several developing countries. For instance, agriculture is the highest single source of employment in Ghana, Nigeria, Mali and India, even though its actual contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is lower (Olaniyi and Titilola 2014). Aquaculture is an important economic sector with significant employment generation potential. Globally, it provides more than 23 million direct and indirect full-time jobs, largely concentrated in developing countries (Ottinger et al. 2016; Valderrama et al. 2010) the Aquaculture and Management Conservation Service (FIRA, and employment generation from aquaculture has been significant in regions that have struggled to develop more viable long-term employment options (Grealis et al. 2017). Furthermore, several studies have identified that exogenous interventions in aquaculture value chains can generate both employment and other co-benefits (Table 1). Women play a major role in aquaculture value chains globally (FAO 2016), but they often receive unequal benefits from their involvement (Kruijssen et al. 2018). Global population growth and ongoing efforts to end world hunger can create significant employment generation opportunities in primary production sectors, and aquaculture is not an exception (FAO and OECD 2014). As a result of growth in population and per capita consumption, global fish demand is projected to increase by about 47 million metric tons in the next few years, with global aquaculture output increasing by 19 million (FAO 2017). The expected expansion could offer substantial employment generation opportunities, especially for females and youths, as well as possibilities for creating and expanding small- and large-scale businesses in the sector (FAO 2017; Shaalan et al. 2018). The huge demand-supply gap of more than 28 million metric tons (FAO 2017) creates even higher employment generation potential. Stage Intervention Employment generation Co-benefits Citation Farm • Technological 2,495 jobs created • Increased income (Haque and Dey 2017) intervention • Fencing: 266 jobs • Food security • Guarding: 580 jobs • Harvesting: 1,648 jobs Farm • Knowledge Employment generation: • Higher financial contribution to (Panda et al. 2012) • Financing • 387 man-days (277 man- families compared to the control (INR • Marketing days) higher than the 3,265/- vs. INR 2,490/-) control Farm • Knowledge • Employment generation • Increased income (Mula and Sarker 2013) from 6.3 to 9.7 human- days/household Farm • Mud crab farming • Increased employment • Improved food supply (Mirera et al. 2014) • Milkfish farming • Increased income • Mangrove nursery • Improved food security Farm • Fish culture • Increased employment • Fish yield increases to 4–6 t/ha/yr (Chakrabarti et al. 2017) • Fish-cum-duck culture (from a benchmark of about 1 t/ha/yr) • Hatchery • Reduced vulnerability • Wealth generation Farm • Bangladesh country- • Employment generation • Reduced vulnerability (Phillips et al. 2016) Hatchery level data • 3.15 million FTE jobs (at • Reduced poverty Other farm level) • Improved food security stages • 642,000 FTE jobs (at other stages) Table 1. Employment generation and other co-benefits from aquaculture interventions. 5 Key aspects of the Egyptian aquaculture sector Egypt is one of the countries where aquaculture can generate important socioeconomic benefits, with total fish production capacity estimated at over 1.7 million metric tons. In 2016, fish production contributed about USD 3.6 billion to Egypt’s GDP, and aquaculture had a substantial contribution as it provides more than 80% of total fish production (GAFRD 2018). This makes Egypt Africa’s largest aquaculture producer (FAO 2018; Shaalan et al. 2018). Aquaculture employs over 580,000 people (Shaalan et al., 2018), but this figure might be an overestimate (FAO 2018). Apart from direct permanent jobs, other employment opportunities include seasonal workers during harvesting and other periods of intensive activity, as well as indirect employment in the fish trade, transport, processing, retailing, and boat and net manufacturing sectors (FAO 2009). Current growth and especially the potential of future expansion suggest that aquaculture can contribute to curbing Egypt’s persistently high unemployment rates, particularly for women and youths. At the same time, aquaculture can have other multiple benefits for a country that faces various interlinked challenges (Box 1). Box 1. Major socioeconomic challenges in Egypt. Egypt faces a series of interlinked challenges related to increasing population, urbanization and unsustainable consumption and production patterns (Galli et al. 2017; Osama et al. 2017). The current population is close to 100 million and is projected to increase to over 150 million by 2050. Approximately 60% of the population is under the age of 30, and an estimated 20% live on less than USD 1 per day (World Bank 2017b). While unemployment rates have been declining in recent years, the current unemployment rate of 12.1% is quite high compared to global standards (6%) (Section 1.1). Youth unemployment is high both for males (29% in 2016) and females (45% in 2016) (World Bank 2016), while women make up only 24% of the labor force (World Bank 2015). Egypt ranks 135th out of 144 countries for gender equality in economic participation and opportunity (World Economic Forum 2017). Such strong gender disparities are a result of various factors, such as social norms and attitudes, economic pressures, religious beliefs, access to finance and markets, and structural forces (Assaad and Krafft 2013; Biltagy 2014; Nassar and Biltagy 2017). Per capita consumption of local fish increased by 75% between 2007 and 2016, from 13.5 kg/year to over 18 kg/year. Currently, fish provides approximately 38% of the animal protein demand for Egypt’s population (CAPMAS 2018) and is an affordable source of micronutrients that are essential for good health. The increase in per capita fish consumption is currently higher than for beef and poultry, which further highlights the growing importance of fish in local diets. At the same time, total fish production capacity has been increasing substantially (Table 2). Aquaculture currently provides almost 69% of Egypt’s fish needs. The overall share of aquaculture in domestic fish production grew from 47% in 2000 to 80% in 2016 (Table 2). This is mainly attributed to the extensive promotion and adoption of new technologies, such as the use of extruded feed and improved farm management practices (Hebisha and Fethi 2014). In terms of produced species, tilapia dominates, accounting for more than two-thirds of all fish produced through aquaculture in 2016 (Figure 1). Other important species, or species groups, include carp (Cyprinids, mainly common carp and silver carp, 15%), mullet (Mugilidae spp., 11%) and catfish (Clarias spp., 2.5%). Egypt is the third-largest tilapia producer in aquaculture globally (after China and Indonesia) and the largest producer of mullet (GAFRD 2018). The positive effects of aquaculture for the national economy have triggered both governmental agencies and nongovernmental organizations to implement different interventions in the sector (Shaalan et al. 2018). Major projects implemented by the government of Egypt include the National Project for Marine Aquaculture in 6 the Suez Canal and the Gilion Lake Project in Kafr El Sheikh (Wally 2016). These projects, among others, have contributed to the rapid expansion in support activities such as local feed mills and hatcheries, which has further made the sector more sophisticated and diverse. Catfish/Others 1% Meagure 1% Bass/Bream 4% Mullet 11% Carp 15% Tilapia 68% Source: GAFRD 2018. Figure 1. Fish species produced through aquaculture in 2016.   2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Fisheries production (1,000 t) 372 374 387 385 375 354 357 345 344 336 Aquaculture production (1,000 t) 636 694 705 922 987 1,018 1,098 1,137 1,175 1,371 Total fisheries production (1,000 t) 1,008 1,068 1,093 1,307 1,362 1,372 1,454 1,482 1,519 1,706 Fish farming production (% of total) 62.9 64.8 64.4 70.3 72.4 74.2 75.5 76.7 77.3 80.3 Fish imports (1,000 t) 258.9 136.8 135.5 256.8 182.2 335 236 354.6 296.1 311.1 Fish exports (1,000 t) 4.4 6.7 7.6 10.6 9.5 16 20 28.0 19.7 47.8 Fish farming as % of total consumption (%) 50.2 57.8 57.6 59.2 64.2 60.0 65.7 62.9 65.4 69.6 Local fish supply (kg/yr) 13.50 14.13 14.13 16.44 16.82 16.48 16.94 16.75 16.85 18.22 Local and imported fish supply (g/yr) 16.98 15.95 15.89 19.7 19.09 20.55 19.73 23.47 20.83 21.64 Source: GAFRD 2018. Table 2. Key statistics for fisheries and aquaculture in Egypt. 7 Intervention and aim of study Considering the interlinked challenges outlined in the establishment of an aquaculture innovation Section 1.2, WorldFish helped to implement STREAMS platform. Furthermore, the main aquaculture fish in 2015 with funding from the Swiss Development producer organizations (in Fayoum, Kafr el Sheikh, Cooperation (SDC) and in collaboration with Sharkia, Behera and El-Mineya) are provided with CARE Egypt. The project aims at making a positive capacity-building support. impact on fish farmer and trader communities in Egypt through (a) introduction of improved tilapia According to the theory of change for the CGIAR strains with greater yields, (b) training of small-scale Research Program (CRP) on Fish Agri-Food Systems aquaculture businesses in best management practices, (FISH) (Figure 2), these interventions are expected to and (c) improved conditions for female fish retailers. alleviate poverty through increased fish productivity This investment targets key areas of aquaculture as well as income and employment generation production and retailing with the aim of boosting throughout the aquaculture value chain. However, a employment, especially for women. first step in evaluating the effectiveness of STREAMS is to understand employment generation patterns in the STREAMS also provides support for existing and overall aquaculture sector. The current benchmark is prospective fish farmers in the main fish farming the study by Macfadyen et al. (2011), which quantified governorates (Kafr El Sheikh, Behera, Fayoum Sharkia) employment creation along the aquaculture value chain and El-Mineya in Upper Egypt. The project facilitated at 14 FTE jobs per 100 t increase in fish production. Tilapia seeds in one of Riyad village hatcheries, Kafr El-Sheikh, Lower Egypt. 8 8 Photo credit: Sara Fouad/WorldFish Figure 2. CRP-level impact pathways and theory of change overview. 9 Thus the aim of this study is to assess employment more than 80% of the freshwater fish produced in generation across the aquaculture value chain in Egypt in 2016 (GAFRD 2018). We also sampled fish Egypt and compare it with existing estimates (Box 2). farms in the governorate of Dammietta to assess job We focus on areas that have received intervention creation in farms that produce marine fish. This report from STREAMS. In particular, we surveyed feed mills, quantifies employment generation across the Egyptian hatcheries, fish farms and traders/retailers in the aquaculture value chain to test this assumption and governorates of Behera, Fayoum, Kafr El-Sheikh and inform the STREAMS steering committee regarding Sharkia. Collectively these governorates provided project decisions and areas of further assistance. Box 2. Egyptian aquaculture chain. The value chain comprises feed mills, hatcheries, fish farms and traders/retailers (Figure 3). These stages reflect radically different roles within the value chain. Input Supply Production Trade Retail Fish Markets Hatcheries Wholesalers Life Fish Traders Fish Farms Fish Feed Middle Shops Mills Traders Street Vendors Source: modified from Macfadyen et al. 2011 and Macfadyen et al. 2012b. Figure 3. Aquaculture value chain in Egypt and linkages among the main actors. There are 440 hatcheries (Nasr-Allah et al. 2014) and 60 feed mills (El-Sayed 2014) in Egypt. Hatcheries typically produce all male tilapia fry and fingerlings, which are then mostly sold to fish farms. On average, hatcheries are 1.7 ha large and have about 10,700 of brooders per hatchery (Nasr-Allah et al. 2014). Feed mills produce extruded and pelletized fish feed, mainly for tilapia, at a protein level that ranges between 25% and 45% (El-Sayed 2014). Almost all aquaculture output comes from small- and medium-sized privately owned fish farms. Freshwater fish farms produce the bulk of fresh fish in the country, mainly using earth ponds (responsible for 86% of total production in 2016) and cages (12.8%) (GAFRD 2018). Fish farms distribute fish to traders and wholesalers, and these larger traders distribute fish to retailers and food service outlets (e.g. restaurants) usually within 1 day of purchase. On average, these traders sell 99% of the fish bought, amounting to an average sales volume of 1112 t per year worth EGP 11.9 million (Macfadyen et al. 2012b). Retailers sell live or fresh fish (with or without ice) directly to domestic consumers and are typically in possession of the fish for 1 day. On average, retailers have a sales volume of 65 t worth EGP 940,000 (Macfadyen et al. 2012b) while fish retailers trading Lake Nasser fish sell 34 t worth EGP 438,573 per year (Nasr-Allah et al. 2016). 10 Methodology Questionnaire design and survey preparation of Dammietta to assess job creation on farms that Data was collected through questionnaires that produce marine fish. In total, we aimed to interview targeted different groups within the aquaculture 40 hatcheries, 15 feed mills, 200 fish farms and 184 fish value chain—namely hatcheries, feed mills, fish farms traders (Tables 3–4). However, given the different type and the postharvest subsector, including traders, of information available to the research team we had wholesalers and retailers (Figure 3). We drafted a to slightly modify the surveyed numbers (Table 3–4) different questionnaire for each group to reflect and resort to different sampling procedures to ensure its different operations and roles within the value the effective randomization of the samples. chain. All four versions included questions about the output and the employment profiles (e.g. number of We sampled hatcheries and feed mills through a permanent/temporary employees, employment type database provided by WorldFish contacts in the for each gender) of the operations. The questionnaires different governorates. From this database we were drafted in English and then translated into Arabic. randomly selected the feed mills and hatcheries to be interviewed in each governorate. Three questionnaires were piloted at WorldFish Abbassa: one at a hatchery, one at a fish farm and As there is no comprehensive database of fish farms one with a fish trader/retailer. Following the piloting, in Egypt, we adopted a stratified random sampling we revised the draft surveys, integrating the lessons approach. First, we identified the number of fish farms learned and then trained the enumerators that to be surveyed in each governorate, based on the fish undertook the data collection. Contacts were made production output of each governorate compared ahead of the field visits in each governorate to to total national fish production. This proportionate facilitate community entry. sampling approach was used to avoid oversampling fish farms from any given governorate. Once we Sampling design decided the number of fish farms to be sampled in each governorate, we used local WorldFish contacts Our study focused on the governorates of Behera, to arrange farmer visits in different villages in every Fayoum, Kafr El-Sheikh and Sharkiam, which governorate. In each village, we selected fish farms collectively accounted for more than 80% of randomly through transect walks. Starting from a freshwater fish produced in Egypt in 2016 (GAFRD fixed point, enumerators walked in each direction, 2018). We also sampled fish farms in the governorate Retailer Wholesalers Middle traders Live fish sale Fish shops Fish markets Street vendors Behera 4 (4) 4 (4) 7 (7) 7 (7) 7 (7) 4 (4) Fayoum 4 (4) 4 (4) 6 (6) 6 (6) 6 (6) 4 (4) Kafr El-Sheikh 10 (9) 10 (10) 20 (21) 20 (21) 20 (20) 8 (7) Sharkia 4 (8) 4 (0) 7 (7) 7 (7) 7 (6) 4 (5) Total 22 (25) 22 (18) 40 (41) 40 (41) 40 (39) 20 (20) Table 3. Number of planned and implemented interviews (in parenthesis) by governorate and value chain actor. Retailer Wholesalers Middle traders Live fish sale Fish shops Fish markets Street vendors Behera 4 (4) 4 (4) 7 (7) 7 (7) 7 (7) 4 (4) Fayoum 4 (4) 4 (4) 6 (6) 6 (6) 6 (6) 4 (4) Kafr El-Sheikh 10 (9) 10 (10) 20 (21) 20 (21) 20 (20) 8 (7) Sharkia 4 (8) 4 (0) 7 (7) 7 (7) 7 (6) 4 (5) Total 22 (25) 22 (18) 40 (41) 40 (41) 40 (39) 20 (20) Table 4. Number of planned and implemented interviews (in parenthesis) by governorate for fish traders. 11 visiting the first farm on right hand side followed by To assess better whether job creation varied between the third farm on the left hand side and then again the age groups, we also calculated the FTE for those third farm on the right hand side. This transect walk above 30 years of age (FTE>30/100 t) and below approach allowed for a high degree of randomization. (FTE<30/100 t). We also calculated the FTE for women across the chain. Fish traders were selected through snowballing sampling. At the beginning of the survey, the In addition, we calculated employment generation for enumerators visited the wholesale fish market in ancillary transport services at each stage of the value the capital city of each governorate. Through this chain. However, because of the nature of transport initial visit, we developed a list of wholesalers, middle activities and the fact that service providers change traders and other retailers. The wholesalers who from time to time, it is not possible to accurately were interviewed identified traders in other districts calculate employment generation by gender and within the governorate. After finishing the interviews age. For this reason, we calculated only the overall in the capital of each governorate, the enumerators transport-related employment generation (in FTE jobs moved to different districts until the desired sample per 100 t of fish produced), not differentiating by age was achieved. Through this process, the following 11 group and gender. districts were visited in four governates: • Kafr El-Sheikh governorate: Kafr El-Sheikh, Desouk, Finally, we aggregated the estimated values for each El-Hamoul and Balteem districts stage of the value chain to derive the employment • Beheira governorate: Rashid, Badr and Edko districts generation for the entire value chain (Section 4.6). • Fayoum governorate: Fayoum and Ibshwai districts • Sharkia governorate: Belbies and Abou Hamad Design consideration and data quality assurance districts. The survey for the entire aquaculture value chain entailed some difficulties as the sector extended over Data treatment and analysis a wide geographical area and included many different Data from the hard-copy questionnaires was entered actors. In particular, the information initially available into Excel spreadsheets and checked for validity to the research team was not consistent among and correctness by the enumerators responsible the different stages of the value chain. Contrary to for completing the individual interviews. The data hatcheries and feed mills, there is no comprehensive was then analyzed through descriptive statistics to database of fish farms and fish traders/retailers operating generate information about business volume and in the different governorates, so we could not randomly employment generation across the value chain. select fish farms and fish traders/retailers from lists, as we did for hatcheries and feed mills. To ensure the effective To calculate the employment generation, we randomization of the sample, fish farmers were selected converted part-time jobs to FTEs and aggregated them though transect walks, and fish traders/retailers through with the full-time jobs. We calculated overarching snowballing. Although the randomization process has employment generation indices as follows: been robust, there should be caution when comparing • Hatcheries: FTE jobs generated per 660,000 tilapia the levels of employment generation between the seed, which is necessary for producing 100 t of different stages of the value chain. fish (FTE per 100 t of fish). This is based on the survival rate 57.2% for tilapia fry to market size in Furthermore, it is difficult to accurately estimate growing ponds (Bolivar et al., 2004), and an average employment generation for transport-related activities. tilapia harvest weight of 265g (Macfadyen et al., It is particularly problematic to provide disaggregated 2012b)490tonnes in 2009 (Section 4.2). information by age and gender, as transport services • Feed mills: FTE jobs generated per 150 t of are often outsourced and the transport service vendors produced fish feed, which is necessary for can change over time (even within the same year). The producing 100 t of fish (FTE per 100 t of fish). respondents were unable to report accurately the age Calculated at FCR 1.5 as reported (Dickson et al., and gender of the actual transport service providers, so 2016) (Section 4.3). we opted to report aggregate employment generation • Fish farms: FTE jobs generated per 100 t of estimates not differentiating by gender and age. produced fish (FTE per 100 t of fish) (Section 4.4) While it is highly possible that males will dominate • Traders/retailers: FTE jobs generated per 100 t of the employment profile of transport services, it is not sold fish (FTE per 100 t of fish) (Section 4.5). possible to infer employment generation by age with a high degree of accuracy. 12 Our survey did not attempt to elicit information • An iterative survey design was followed, where the about skill level, wages, job quality and satisfaction initial survey was developed through extensive with employment. To elicit such variables with a high work and prior knowledge of the context and was degree of accuracy, it is necessary to interview every refined through piloting. single employee, which was not logistically possible • Enumerators were trained thoroughly. under the focus and constraints of the current report. • Reliable WorldFish contacts were used to access fish This is an important aspect that will be addressed in farms in the study sites. the final impact assessment study at the end of project. • Data collection team members with previous data collection experience were selected. We are certain that despite the variability in the • Specialist aquaculture sector knowledge and sampling approaches between groups and the short previous experience of all members of the design surveys to facilitate recollection, the obtained data and field team were mobilized. and results are quite robust. They reflect well the actual differences in individual financial performance. The international technical expert team prepared an To enhance data quality, the following specific steps initial draft of this report, which was then circulated were taken: to all team members for their comments. Based on feedback, revisions were made before finalization. A women fish retailer selling and cleaning live fish on a street corner in Fayoum. 1133 Photo credit: Sara Fouad/WorldFish Results Characteristics of the value chain On average, respondents in trading and retailing On average, each hatchery produced 8 million seed. have been operating for 9.8 years. Respondents in The highest average seed production per hatchery is the governorate of Fayoum have the highest average in Sharkia (10.5 million) followed by Behera (8 million) experience (16 years), followed respondents in Behera and Kafr El Sheikh (7.6 million) (Annex 1, Table S1). (9.3), Sharkia (8.4) and Kafr El-Sheikh (8.4). From a gender Seed comes overwhelmingly in the form of fry (93%) perspective, 72% of respondents in trading and retailing rather than fingerlings (7%). The average hatchery size are male and 28% female, with male respondents is 1.33 ha, with hatcheries in Sharkia being on average dominating all governorates, apart from Fayoum (Table the largest (1.64 ha). However, hatcheries in Kafr El 5). Sales volume varied substantially between the Sheikh have the highest seed production per unit area different types of fish traders and retailers (Table 5). (9.45 million seed per ha), which makes them more intensive and high yielding compared to hatcheries in Employment generation in hatcheries Behera and Sharkia. On average, hatchery-related job creation across the study governorates amounts to 3.76 FTE jobs per The average production capacity of feed mills varies, hatchery and 0.41 FTE jobs per 660,000 fry (equivalent at 8500 t/yr in Behera, 12,167 t/yr in Kafr El-Sheikh to 100 t of fish produced), including contribution from and 2667 t/yr in Sharkia. Feed mills in Behera and ancillary transport services (Table 6). In particular, Sharkia produce only pelleted feed, while mills in Kafr hatcheries in the governorate of Behera generate the El-Sheikh produce both pelleted (29%) and extruded most jobs (0.54 FTE jobs per 660,000 fry and 5.21 FTE feed (71%) (Annex 1, Table S2). Most of the surveyed jobs per hatchery), followed by hatcheries in Sharkia feed mills normally run a single work shift, but some in (0.27 FTE jobs per 660,000 fry and 4.01 FTE jobs per Kafr El-Sheikh run two or three. This is reflected in their hatchery) and Kafr El-Sheikh (0.41 FTE jobs per 660,000 higher (on average) production capacity. fry and 3.46 FTE jobs per hatchery). Average fish production per fish farm was 93.5 t (63.9– There is almost equal employment generation across 144.5 t) or 10.3 t/ha (9.4–12.2 t/ha) (Annex 1, Table age groups in terms of FTE jobs per hatchery, with S3). Figure 4 outlines fish productivity per unit area hatcheries in Behera and Sharkia generating on for different species, highlighting the much higher average more jobs for people below 30 years of age productivity of tilapia per unit area. for both major employment indicators (Table 6, Figure 5). We did not identify any employment generation for females in any governorate. Others Meagre Sea Bream Sea Bass Catfish Silver Carp Common Carp Mullet (M.Cap) Mullet (M.Cep) Tilapia 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 Fish yield (kg/ha) Figure 4. Average pond productivity per unit area for different fish species. 14 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 Behera Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia All Governorate FTE per 100 t FTE > 30 per 100 t FTE < 30 per 100 t Transportation FTE Job per 100 t Figure 5. Hatcheries’ FTE jobs generation per 660,000 fry (equivalent to 100 t fish). Behera Fayoum Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Average Gender (%) Male 85 60 72 73 72 Female 15 40 28 27 28 Average family size 4.5 5.2 5.3 4.2 4.9 Period of operation (years) 9.3 16.0 8.4 8.5 9.8 Sales volume (t/yr) Middle traders 5,355 468 459 - 1,549 Wholesalers 1,275 400 442 901 715 Fish shops 50 26 70 20 52 Fish markets 16 16 56 21 37.3 Street vendors 12 13 30 20 22.6 Live fish traders/transporters 9 18 32 16 22.2 Table 5. Socioeconomic information of fish traders and sales volume.   Behera Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Average FTE jobs per hatchery 5.08 3.23 3.90 3.55 FTE jobs >30 per hatchery 1.94 1.92 0.70 1.77 FTE jobs <30 per hatchery 3.14 1.31 3.20 1.78 Transportation FTE jobs per hatchery 0.13 0.23 0.11 0.21 FTE jobs per hatchery incl. transport 5.21 3.46 4.01 3.76 FTE jobs per 660,000 fry (or 100t fish) 0.53 0.38 0.26 0.39 FTE jobs >30 per 660,000 fry (or 100 t fish) 0.23 0.24 0.06 0.22 FTE jobs <30 per 660,000 fry (or 100 t fish) 0.31 0.14 0.20 0.17 Transportation FTE jobs per 660,000 fry (or 100 t fish) 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.02 FTE jobs per 660,000 fry (or 100 t fish) incl. transport 0.54 0.41 0.27 0.41 Table 6. Employment generation indicators for hatcheries. 15 Employment Generation (FTE) Employment generation in feed mills between age groups, while in Behera job generation is On average, feed mill-related job creation amounted higher for those below 30 years (Table 7; Figure 6). As to 3.85 FTE jobs per feed mill or 0.39 FTE jobs per in the hatcheries, only males occupy jobs in feed mills. 150 t of feed produced (equivalent to 100 t of fish produced), including from ancillary transport services Employment generation in fish farms (Table 7). Overall job creation ranged from 0.74 FTE On average, fish farm-related jobs amounted to 7.03 jobs per 150 t of feed in Sharkia, to 0.35 in Behera FTE jobs per 100 t of fish produced, including from and 0.29 in Kafr El-Sheikh, all including employment ancillary transport services. The overall job generation contribution from transportation (Table 7). ranges (FTE jobs per 100 t) between governorates are as follows: Fayoum (7.85), Behera (7.34), Kafr El-Sheikh Employment generation is relatively well balanced (6.74), Damietta (6.76) and Sharkia (5.63), all including between employees under 30 years of age (0.12 FTE employment generation from ancillary transport jobs <30 per 150 t of feed) and over 30 years old services (Table 8). There is no job generation for (0.18 FTE jobs >30 per 150 t of feed). Employment females in the surveyed fish farms. generation in feed mills in Sharkia is almost the same 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 Behera Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia All Governorate FTE per 100 t FTE > 30 per 100 t FTE < 30 per 100 t Transportation FTE Job per 100 t Figure 6. Feed mills’ FTE jobs generation per 150 t of feed (equivalent to 100 t of fish). Behera Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Average FTE jobs per feed mill 18.40 14.82 7.72 13.81 FTE jobs >30 per feed mill 7.00 10.21 3.82 8.38 FTE jobs <30 per feed mill 11.40 4.62 3.90 5.43 Transportation FTE jobs per feed mill 2.73 4.32 3.18 3.85 FTE jobs per feed mill incl. transportation 21.13 19.14 10.90 17.66 FTE jobs per 150 t feed (or 100 t of fish) 0.30 0.22 0.54 0.30 FTE jobs >30 per 150t feed (or 100 t of fish) 0.13 0.16 0.27 0.18 FTE jobs <30 per 150t feed (or 100 t of fish) 0.17 0.07 0.27 0.12 Transportation FTE jobs per 150 t feed (or 100 t of fish) 0.05 0.07 0.20 0.09 FTE jobs per 150 t (or 100 t of fish) incl. transportation 0.35 0.29 0.74 0.39 Table 7. Employment generation indicators for feed mills. 16 Employment Generation (FTE) On average, twice as many jobs are generated for for middle traders and 1.56 for wholesalers. Most jobs individuals above 30 years of age (4.21 FTE jobs >30 are created for males over 30 years old, with very per 100 t, compared to 2.11 FTE jobs <30 per 100 limited job generation for females (only observed for t). This substantially higher job generation for older wholesalers in Fayoum) (Table 9). people is evident across all five study governorates. In some extreme cases, job generation (FTE jobs >30 per More substantial job generation is observed in 100 t) is three times lower for younger people than for fish retailing across all governorates (Table 10). older people: e.g. Fayoum (5.03 vs. 1.75) and Damietta In particular, when taking into consideration job (4.44 vs. 1.49) (Table 8; Figure 7). generation from ancillary transport services, job creation amounts to 10.13 FTE jobs per 100 t of sold Employment generation is fish marketing fish. Disaggregated data suggests that generation of The overall number of FTE jobs created per 100 t of FTE jobs per 100 t was 11.87 for fish shop retailers, 7.38 sales volume varied among different players, but is for fish market retailers, 9.79 for street vendors and much lower for middle traders and wholesalers (Table 13.59 for live fish sellers and transporters. In contrast 9) than retailers (Table 10). In particular, when taking to other stages of the value chain, retailing offers into account transportation, job generation is 1.59 substantial employment opportunities for females and FTE jobs per 100 t of fish sold for wholesalers and youths. Street vending and live fish sales/transport are middle traders (Table 9). Disaggregated data estimates the only stages of the value chain with parity between employment generation of 1.63 FTE jobs per 100 t the jobs generated for males and females (Figure 8). 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 Behera Fayoum Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Damietta All Governorate FTE per 100 t FTE > 30 per 100 t FTE < 30 per 100 t Transportation FTE Job per 100 t Figure 7. Fish farms’ FTE job generation per 100 t of fish Behera Fayoum Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Damietta Average FTE jobs per farm 6.03 3.23 3.08 5.89 6.90 5.91 FTE jobs >30 per farm 3.80 2.40 1.97 3.94 5.17 3.94 FTE jobs <30 per farm 2.23 0.83 1.11 1.95 1.73 1.98 Transportation FTE jobs per farm 0.61 0.54 0.21 0.66 0.90 0.45 FTE jobs per farm incl. transportation 6.64 3.77 3.29 6.55 7.80 6.36 FTE jobs per 100t fish 6.56 6.77 6.19 5.13 5.93 6.32 FTE jobs >30 per 100 t of fish 4.13 5.03 3.97 3.43 4.44 4.24 FTE jobs <30 per 100 t of fish 2.42 1.75 2.23 1.70 1.49 2.08 Transportation FTE jobs per 100 t of fish 0.78 1.08 0.55 0.50 0.83 0.71 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish incl. transportation 7.34 7.85 6.74 5.63 6.76 7.03 Table 8. Employment generation indicators for fish farms. 17 Employment Generation (FTE) Employment generation across the value chain A large proportion of the total amount of jobs were The value chain analysis indicates the creation of about generated for youths, especially in hatcheries (44%), 19.1 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish produced, including feed mills (41%) and middle traders/wholesalers (40%) employment generation from ancillary transport (Table 13). Overall, employment generation benefits services (Table 11). The trading and retailing segment of mostly males across all stages of the value chain (Table the value chain generated the highest number of jobs 13). There are practically no females occupied in the at an average of 8.96 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish produced, surveyed hatcheries, feed mills and fish farms, but with an added 2.29 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish produced there is much more significant job creation for females from ancillary transport activities (Table 11). In the in the fish retailing stage, amounting to 32% of total trading and retailing stages, the generated jobs were job generation (Table 13). overwhelmingly permanent (96% and 99% respectively) (Table 12), though permanent employment generation was much lower in fish farms, at only 65% (Table 12). 100 2.0 0.4 2.9 0.0 90 9.2 26.8 80 70 53.8 49.9 43.2 7.5 60 50 8.7 40 3.9 30 45.6 65.3 20 39.4 41.4 10 0 Fish Shops Fish Markets Street Vendors Live fish sales and transport FTE Men >30 FTE Men <30 Figure 8. Proportion of FTE job generation by age and gender among retailers (%). Behera Fayoum Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Average FTE jobs per 100 t of fish 0.30 2.30 1.60 1.00 1.40 FTE jobs men >30 per 100 t of fish 0.20 1.70 0.70 0.86 0.82 FTE jobs men<30 per 100 t of fish 0.14 0.44 0.94 0.16 0.55 FTE jobs women>30 per100 t of fish 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.01 FTE jobs women<30 per 100 t of fish 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.01 Transportation FTE jobs per 100 t of fish 0.05 0.24 0.31 0.02 0.19 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish incl. transportation 0.35 2.54 1.91 1.02 1.59 Table 9. Employment generation indicators for fish wholesalers and middle traders. Behera Fayoum Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Average FTE jobs per 100 t of fish 10.07 12.67 5.41 6.5 7.56 FTE jobs men >30 per 100 t of fish 7.96 3.00 2.17 3.49 3.56 FTE jobs men <30 per 100 t of fish 1.00 4.61 1.09 0.78 1.57 FTE jobs women >30 per 100 t of fish 1.11 5.06 1.98 2.05 2.32 FTE jobs women <30 per 100 t of fish 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.19 0.12 Transportation FTE jobs per 100 t of fish 0.87 5.85 2.56 0.40 2.57 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish incl. transportation 10.94 18.52 7.97 6.90 10.13 Table 10. Employment generation indicators for fish retailers. 18 Behera Fayoum Kafr el Sheikh Sharkia Damietta Average FTE in aquaculture value chain Hatcheries 0.53 NA 0.38 0.26 NA 0.39 Feed mills 0.30 NA 0.22 0.54 NA 0.30 Fish farms 6.56 6.77 6.19 5.13 5.93 6.33 Middle trader/wholesalers 0.34 2.29 1.64 1.02 NA 1.40 Retailers 10.07 12.67 5.14 6.50 NA 7.56 Total 17.8 21.73 13.85 13.45 5.93 15.98 FTE in transportation activities Hatcheries 0.01 NA 0.03 0.01 NA 0.02 Feed mills 0.05 NA 0.07 0.20 NA 0.09 Fish farms 0.78 1.08 0.55 0.50 0.8 0.7 Middle trader/wholesalers 0.05 0.24 0.31 0.02 NA 0.19 Retailers 0.87 5.85 2.56 0.40 NA 2.57 Total 1.76 7.16 3.52 1.13 0.83 3.58 Total FTE 19.56 28.89 17.37 14.58 6.77 19.56 Table 11. Employment generation across the aquaculture value chain and transportation activities (FTE jobs per 100 t of fish produced). Behera Fayoum Kafr el Sheikh Sharkia Damietta Average Hatcheries 67% NA 77% 70% NA 75% Feed mills 85% NA 61% 92% NA 71% Fish farms 67% 55% 68% 62% 67% 65% Middle traders/ wholesalers 100% 82% 99% 100% NA 96% Retailers 100% 96.5% 100% 100% NA 99% Table 12. Permanent jobs as a fraction of total employment generation. Behera Fayoum Kafr el Sheikh Sharkia Damietta Average Youths Hatcheries 57% NA 37% 78% NA 44% Feed mills 56% NA 29% 51% NA 41% Fish farms 37% 26% 36% 33% 25% 33% Middle traders/ wholesalers 41% 22% 57% 16% NA 40% Retailers 9.9% 36.4% 23.3% 14.8% NA 22% Males Hatcheries 100% 100% 100% 100% NA 100% Feed mills 100% 100% 100% 100% NA 100% Fish farms 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Middle traders/ wholesalers 100% 93.6% 100% 100% 100% 98% Retailers 89% 60.1% 60.2% 65.7% 89% 68% Table 13. Fraction of employment generation for youth and gender. 19 Discussion Employment generation patterns and Equality). However, some of the results need to be co-benefits considered critically to understand the potential of the sector to contribute to progress for these SDGs. This study estimates substantial employment generation across the aquaculture value chain in First, most of the generated jobs are held by people Egypt, in the order of 19.56 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish over 30 years of age. In particular, FTE job generation produced (including the employment contribution for this age group (FTE>30) is substantially higher from ancillary transport services). Very few studies across all stages of the value chain (Section 4.6). have attempted to estimate employment generation Second, males occupy most of the generated jobs across the aquaculture value chain, so it is difficult to (Section 4.6). Retailing is the only stage of the value put these findings into perspective. Previous studies chain with high employment generation for females, in Egypt have estimated that aquaculture generates albeit still significantly lower than males in most 14 FTE per 100 t of fish produced (Macfadyen et al. governorates (Section 4.6). We did not identify any 2011; Macfadyen et al. 2012b)490tonnes in 2009. employment generation for females in the production However, these studies did not consider employment stages of the value chain, as no female jobs were generation in hatcheries and feed mills, and had reported in the surveyed hatcheries, feed mills and small samples from fish traders, so they have likely fish farms. To some extent, the low employment underestimated the total employment generation generation for females is to be expected in fish from the sector. Our estimates of employment farms, considering the manual nature of the job and generation from feed mills is comparable with other the need to stay on site (and away from family) for studies in Egypt (El-Sayed 2014; El-Sayed et al. 2015) extended periods of time. Furthermore, a significant portion of jobs in fish farms is temporary (Section 4.6) Regarding employment generation for females, our and is usually on offer during periods of high labor study reflects the findings of recent reviews and meta- demand, such as harvesting. However, it is troubling analyses, which have identified that women receive to see the lack of female representation in hatcheries lower benefits from involvement in aquaculture value and feed mills, as some of these jobs are highly chains, especially during the production stages (Mula skilled and better paying (e.g. technical managers, and Sarker 2013; Sharm El-Sheikh 2015). Nonetheless, feed formulation specialists, supervising engineers, the participation of women in fish retailing is quality control specialists). The lack of representation substantial—as high as 40% in some governorates, of females in these stages suggests the difficulty, such as Fayoum (Section 4.5). This is a very promising for women, of obtaining higher-skilled jobs in the pattern toward addressing the gender gap in the production stages of the value chain. Egyptian aquaculture value chain (D’Allessandro Y. 2014). Barriers to female training might have contributed to the current lack of females occupying skilled jobs in Indeed, reports show that women perform a high the production stages of the sector. However, these proportion (40%–80%) of postharvest and marketing barriers are gradually being overcome considering activities (Lentisco and Lee 2015; Harper et al. 2013; the greater gender balance in the newly initiated Lentisco and Alonso 2012; Weeratunge et al. 2010), graduate courses on fisheries and aquaculture in the suggesting potential for improvement. It is thus highly major Egyptian universities. It is also worth pointing likely that the postharvest segment of the aquaculture out that females currently occupy 34% of research value chain can offer the highest opportunities for positions at the Central Laboratory for Aquaculture achieving positive impact for women. Research, which is part of the Agriculture Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture. While there is room for Implications for meetings SDGs improvement, this is a very promising trend, as these As discussed above, aquaculture can catalyze are very high-skilled jobs. employment generation across its entire value chain in Egypt, including jobs for women and youths, so it can It can be argued that this substantial employment be argued that the Egyptian aquaculture sector sits at generation can play an important role to ongoing the interface of multiple SDGs, such as SDG8 (Descent efforts to meet SDG8 in Egypt. However, the lower Work and Economic Growth) and SDG5 (Gender employment generation for youths and females curbs 20 to some extent the contribution of the sector for practices (e.g. improved fish strains, good production) progress in SDG5. It is absolutely crucial to boost the can possibly boost the generation of highly skilled creation of employment for females and youths along jobs for females and youths in hatcheries and feed the value chain to maximize the potential of the sector mills. Fish processing offers another opportunity to become an agent of sustainable development for for the generation of skilled jobs. Currently the SDG5 and SDG8. Egyptian aquaculture value chain has minimal value addition in terms of fish processing (Macfadyen et al. In the short term, the fish trading and retailing 2012b)490tonnes in 2009. Yet it has been suggested stage offers the best opportunity for job creation for that increasing the sales of fish fillets could help to females. In the medium- and long-term, the gradual generate female employment in fish processing growth of the sector from increasing fish production (Macfadyen et al. 2012a). following the adoption of different intervention Fish harvest by Egyptian fish farmers in one of Kafr El-Sheikh fish farms, Egypt. 2211 Photo credit: Heba El-Begawi/WorldFish Conclusions This study assesses employment generation across the different stages of the aquaculture value chain in Egypt. The results suggest that aquaculture can generate significant levels of employment, amounting to 19.56 FTE jobs per 100 t of fish produced. This, combined with the ongoing growth of the sectors, means that aquaculture can contribute substantially to efforts to meet SDG8 in Egypt. However, females and youths currently hold a relatively small fraction of these jobs. With the exception of fish retailing, jobs for females are practically nonexistent along the aquaculture value chain. 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Accessed at: www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2017.pdf 25 Annex Behera Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Average Average family size 5.4 6.5 5.4 6.2 Average hatchery size (feddan) 3.0 3.9 2.6 2.8 Spawned species (in %) Tilapia 100% 100% 100% 100% Spawning unit (number) Concrete tanks 6.40 39.87 24.00 33.7 Hapa 82.00 66.40 226.00 88.3 Earth pond 0.80 4.57 10.00 4.8 Size of spawning unit (m3) Concrete tanks 24.0 22.4 24.0 22.6 Hapa 20.3 21.1 21.8 21.1 Earth pond 500 1,654 260 1,209 Total production (million seed/hatchery/yr) 8.03 7.57 10.5 8.0 Seed production (million seed/feddan) 3.52 3.97 3.03 3.8 Production distribution (%) Fry 93% 91% 100% 93% Fingerlings 7% 9% 8% Average prices (EGP/1000) Fry 63 48 54 50.4 Fingerlings 150 153 0 153.0 Hatchery revenue (EGP/yr) Fry 469,500 326,750 565,000 374,375 Fingerlings 79,500 146,317 - 119,675 Brooders 1 - - 0 Total 549,001 473,067 565,000 494,050 Table S1. Production data for hatcheries. Behera Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Average Average family size or respondent 4.5 5.25 5 5.2 Total production (1,000 t/mill/yr) 8,500 12,167 2,667 9,607 Feed Production distribution (%)  Pelleted 100% 29% 100% 54% Extruded 0% 71% 0% 46% Start of operation After 2015 50% 22% 67% 36% Before 2015 50% 78% 33% 64% Table S2. Production data for feed mills. 26 Behera Fayoum Kafr El-Sheikh Sharkia Damietta Average Average family size of respondent 5.6 4.7 6.4 5.9 5.8 6.4 Average farm area (feddan) 27.4 8.8 14.2 33.7 33.5 20.2 Average production (t/farm) 136.4 78.4 63.9 144.5 131.5 89.0 Average production (t/feddan) 5.134 3.967 4.436 4.219 3.990 4.348 Average sales price (EGP/kg) 25.37 22.15 25.74 24.51 59.80 28.29 Species production (per feddan) Tilapia 4,169 3,500 3,280 2,940 895 3,118 Mullet (M.Cep) 646 233 535 476 304 483 Mullet (M.Cap) 260 233 479 760 233 388 Common carp 53 0 33 0 0 40 Silver carp 0 0 0 0 0 0 Catfish 6 0 27 7 0 48 Sea bass 0 0 36 0 560 65 Sea bream 0 0 45 0 714 86 Meagre 0 0 0 0 929 82 Others 0 0 0 36 356 38 Total 5,134 3,967 4,436 4,219 3,990 4,348 Sales revenue (EGP/feddan) Tilapia 94,603 70,276 70,432 59,121 17,190 68,964 Mullet (M.Cep) 25,875 9,326 21,291 19,207 12,381 19,261 Mullet (M.Cap) 8,857 3,711 14,129 23,298 6,583 11,710 Common carp 800 1,684 611 - - 731 Silver carp - - - - - - Catfish 100 2,852 473 76 - 749 Sea bass - - 3,091 - 52,143 5,936 Sea bream - - 4,136 - 69,286 8,094 Meagre - - - - 53,952 4,797 Others 22 - - 1,724 27,083 2,765 Total 130,257 87,849 114,164 103,426 238,619 123,007 Table S3. Production data for fish farms. 27 About WorldFish WorldFish is an international, not-for-profit research organization that works to reduce hunger and poverty by improving fisheries and aquaculture. It collaborates with numerous international, regional and national partners to deliver transformational impacts to millions of people who depend on fish for food, nutrition and income in the developing world. Headquartered in Penang, Malaysia and with regional offices across Africa, Asia and the Pacific, WorldFish is a member of CGIAR, the world’s largest global partnership on agriculture research and innovation for a food secure future. For more information, please visit www.worldfishcenter.org